Story · Quotas
Where reservation applies: about 6 in 100 workers work for government, local bodies and public sector enterprises
In what share of India’s jobs does reservation apply at all, and is that share growing or shrinking?
Key takeaways
- About 6 of every 100 workers in India worked for government, local bodies and public sector enterprises in 2023-24; 46 worked in agriculture, and the rest for private employers or for themselves. Exhibit 1
- Among workers outside agriculture, the share working for government, local bodies and public sector enterprises was 12.6% in 2017-18 and 10.6% in 2023-24. Exhibit 2
- By World Bank estimates, public sector jobs were 57.3% of India’s formal jobs in 2011 and 45.4% in 2019. Exhibit 3
- On 1 March 2024, 3,099,656 people held 3,923,212 sanctioned Central Government civilian posts, and 21.0% of posts were vacant; on 1 March 2001, 5.0% were. Exhibit 4
- Regular CPSE employees numbered 1,565,629 in 2007-08 and 841,000 in 2021-22, and contract, casual and other workers went from 18.6% of CPSE staff in 2014 to 35.0% in 2020. Exhibit 6
- In 2023-24, 92.8% of households outside SC, ST and OBC earned less from work than the EWS income limit, and 98.3% spent less than it; both measures overstate the share that would pass the full test. Exhibit 11
- By the Government’s own statements, reservation does not apply to private employers, contract engagements, lateral entry, the higher judiciary or the armed forces, nor to a company once it is privatised. Exhibit 8
- Four kinds of worker in government schemes number about 6,000,000 people (counts from 2021 to 2025); the Government describes them as honorary workers or volunteers. Exhibit 12
Where reservation for Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), Other Backward Classes (OBCs) and Economically Weaker Sections (EWS) applies by rule, and how many people work where it can apply: all workers by employer from the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) 2017-18 to 2023-24; Central Government civilian posts as on 1 March, 2001 to 2024; regular and contract staff of central public sector enterprises (CPSEs); public and private sector bank staff, 2009-10 to 2025-26; workers in four government schemes whom the Government calls honorary; and, from survey unit data, the share of households outside SC, ST and OBC under the EWS income limit in 2023-24.
- workers worked for government, local bodies and public sector enterprises, 2023-24
- 6 in 100
- of sanctioned Central Government civilian posts vacant, 1 March 2024
- 21.0%
Exhibit 1
About 6 of every 100 workers in India worked for government, local bodies and public sector enterprises in 2023-24
Workers in usual status (principal and subsidiary), per 1,000 workers: those in agriculture, and the rest by who they work for, all India, 2023-24 (July to June).
One bar to 1,000: agriculture, forestry and fishing 461; outside agriculture, government, local bodies and public sector enterprises 57; outside agriculture, all other employers and the self-employed 482.
- Agriculture, forestry and fishing46146.1%
- Government, local bodies and public sector enterprises575.7%
- All other work outside agriculture48248.2%
Note: PLFS asks who a worker works for only outside agriculture; there, 10.6% worked for government, local bodies and public sector enterprises, and we apply that share to the 53.9% of workers outside agriculture. Not every post in this group is reserved, and it includes contract and casual workers in government offices, who are not on reserved posts.
Source: National Statistics Office, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, PLFS Annual Report 2023-24, Table (35) (all-India, rural and urban, persons) and Statement 7. Analysis by The Dalit Project, as on 11 Oct 2026. Exhibit 2
The share of non-farm workers who worked for government, local bodies and public sector enterprises was 12.6% in 2017-18 and 10.6% in 2023-24
Workers outside agriculture whose enterprise is government, local bodies and public sector enterprises, as a share of all workers outside agriculture, %, all India, 2017-18 to 2023-24 (July to June).
Columns by survey year: 2017-18 12.6%; 2018-19 12.6%; 2019-20 12.6%; 2021-22 11.4%; 2022-23 10.3%; 2023-24 10.6%; 2020-21 not shown.
- 2017-18
- 2018-19
- 2019-20
- 2020-21Report not held
- 2021-22
- 2022-23
- 2023-24
Note: Each figure is the worker’s own answer about their enterprise, so it includes contract and casual workers in government offices. Autonomous bodies are a separate column in PLFS (0.2% in 2023-24) and are not added in. The 2020-21 report could not be downloaded, so that year is missing.
Source: National Statistics Office, PLFS Annual Reports 2017-18 to 2023-24: 2017-18 Table (39), 2018-19 Table (39), 2019-20 Table (39), 2021-22 Table (39), 2022-23 Table (22), 2023-24 Table (35). Analysis by The Dalit Project, as on 11 Oct 2026. Exhibit 3
Public sector jobs were 57.3% of India’s formal jobs in 2011 and 45.4% in 2019, by World Bank estimates
Public sector paid employees as a share of all formal employees, India, 2011, 2018, 2019, World Bank estimates from household surveys.
Columns: 2011 57.3%; 2018 49.6%; 2019 45.4%.
- 2011
- 2018
- 2019
Note: This is the World Bank’s calculation, not an Indian government figure. A formal job is one with at least one of a written contract, health insurance, union membership or social security; the codebook says “Formal employment is defined by having access to at least one of following benefits (contract, health insurance, union membership, or social security)”. The codebook names the survey behind each year as the National Sample Survey. Years without a published value are left out, and the years are not evenly spaced.
Source: World Bank, Worldwide Bureaucracy Indicators, version 6 (updated 24 Feb 2025), indicator BI.EMP.FRML.PB.ZS; definitions from the WWBI Codebook and Explanatory Note (2023). Analysis by The Dalit Project, as on 11 Oct 2026. Exhibit 4
Sanctioned Central Government civilian posts went from 3,606,482 in 2001 to 3,923,212 in 2024; employees in post went from 3,426,018 to 3,099,656, and 21.0% of posts were vacant
Regular Central Government civilian posts sanctioned, and employees in position, as on 1 March of each year, 2001 to 2024.
Lines: sanctioned posts and employees in position. 2001: 3,606,482 sanctioned, 3,426,018 in position; 2002: 3,633,006 sanctioned, 3,289,849 in position; 2003: 3,620,183 sanctioned, 3,236,503 in position; 2004: 3,560,433 sanctioned, 3,128,134 in position; 2005: 3,559,831 sanctioned, 3,088,009 in position; 2006: 3,526,769 sanctioned, 3,109,274 in position; 2007: 3,546,537 sanctioned, 3,109,274 in position; 2008: 3,562,188 sanctioned, 3,116,832 in position; 2009: 3,564,283 sanctioned, 3,107,343 in position; 2010: 3,602,295 sanctioned, 3,068,359 in position; 2011: 3,663,529 sanctioned, 3,081,938 in position; 2012: 3,684,543 sanctioned, 3,084,530 in position; 2013: 3,716,520 sanctioned, 3,114,195 in position; 2014: 3,645,584 sanctioned, 3,223,926 in position; 2015: 3,649,468 sanctioned, 3,228,921 in position; 2016: 3,633,935 sanctioned, 3,221,183 in position; 2018: 3,802,779 sanctioned, 3,118,956 in position; 2019: 3,999,145 sanctioned, 3,088,992 in position; 2020: 4,004,941 sanctioned, 3,132,698 in position; 2021: 4,035,203 sanctioned, 3,055,876 in position; 2022: 3,977,509 sanctioned, 3,013,150 in position; 2023: 3,960,847 sanctioned, 3,004,018 in position; 2024: 3,923,212 sanctioned, 3,099,656 in position.
Regular Central Government civilian posts sanctioned, and employees in position, as on 1 March of each year, 2001 to 2024. Year Sanctioned posts (Posts) Employees in position (Posts) 2001 3,606,482 3,426,018 2002 3,633,006 3,289,849 2003 3,620,183 3,236,503 2004 3,560,433 3,128,134 2005 3,559,831 3,088,009 2006 3,526,769 3,109,274 2007 3,546,537 3,109,274 2008 3,562,188 3,116,832 2009 3,564,283 3,107,343 2010 3,602,295 3,068,359 2011 3,663,529 3,081,938 2012 3,684,543 3,084,530 2013 3,716,520 3,114,195 2014 3,645,584 3,223,926 2015 3,649,468 3,228,921 2016 3,633,935 3,221,183 2018 3,802,779 3,118,956 2019 3,999,145 3,088,992 2020 4,004,941 3,132,698 2021 4,035,203 3,055,876 2022 3,977,509 3,013,150 2023 3,960,847 3,004,018 2024 3,923,212 3,099,656 Note: Union Territories are left out from 2018; the reports for 2001 to 2005 also leave them out, and those for 2006 to 2016 do not say. No report gives figures as on 1 March 2017. Civilian staff only: the armed forces and Central Police Forces are not in these counts. The Seventh Central Pay Commission records “guidelines issued by the Department of Personnel and Training in May 2001 on optimisation of direct recruitment to civilian posts, which were in operation from May 2001 to March 2009. As per these guidelines fresh recruitment was to be restricted to one percent of total civilian staff strength” (Report, November 2015, para 3.34).
Source: Pay Research Unit, Department of Expenditure, Ministry of Finance, Brochures and Annual Reports on Pay and Allowances of Central Government Civilian Employees, 2000-01 to 2023-24, group-wise table of sanctioned posts and persons in position. Analysis by The Dalit Project, as on 11 Oct 2026. Exhibit 5
Regular employees of central public sector enterprises numbered 1,565,629 in 2007-08 and 841,000 on 31 March 2022
Regular (permanent) employees of central public sector enterprises (CPSEs), as the Public Enterprises Survey counts them and the Government reported them to Parliament, 2007-08 to 2021-22.
Columns: 2007-08 1,565,629; 2008-09 1,533,531; 2009-10 1,490,699; 2010-11 1,440,000; 2011-12 1,450,000; 2012-13 1,404,000; 2013-14 1,351,000; 2015-16 1,233,618; 2020-21 860,000; 2021-22 841,000.
- 2007-08
- 2008-09
- 2009-10
- 2010-11
- 2011-12
- 2012-13
- 2013-14
- 2015-16
- 2020-21
- 2021-22
Note: The answers count different sets of enterprises (248 operating CPSEs in 2021-22) and some round to the nearest thousand. The 2010-11 to 2012-13 figures are “employees”, and the answer says CPSEs also employ contract and casual workers. Years with no answer found are left out.
Source: Lok Sabha Unstarred Question 3497, 15 Dec 2011; Lok Sabha Unstarred Question 98, 24 Feb 2015; Rajya Sabha Unstarred Question 1511, 20 Dec 2022; Lok Sabha Unstarred Question 577, 19 Dec 2017; Lok Sabha Unstarred Question 2306, 1 Aug 2022; Lok Sabha Unstarred Question 2932, 7 Aug 2023, each citing the Public Enterprises Survey. Analysis by The Dalit Project, as on 11 Oct 2026. Exhibit 6
Workers other than regular employees were 18.6% of CPSE staff on 31 March 2014 and 35.0% on 31 March 2020
Staff of central public sector enterprises: regular employees and contract, casual and daily-rated workers, as the Government reported them to Parliament.
Table: 31 Mar 2014: 1,351,000 regular, 308,000 other, 18.6% other; 31 Mar 2016: 1,233,618 regular, 267,929 other, 17.8% other; 31 Mar 2020: 921,876 regular, 495,751 other, 35.0% other.
As on Regular employees Contract, casual and other workers All staff Share not regular 31 Mar 2014 1,351,000 308,000 1,659,000 18.6% 31 Mar 2016 1,233,618 267,929 1,501,547 17.8% 31 Mar 2020 921,876 495,751 1,417,627 35.0% Note: Reservation applies to regular posts in CPSEs; no instruction provides for it in contract engagements (Rajya Sabha Unstarred Question 540, 7 Feb 2019). Each answer names the other workers differently: 31 Mar 2014, contractual workers; 31 Mar 2016, personnel other than regular employees; 31 Mar 2020, contract workers, employees, casual and daily-rated workers. Where an answer gives no total or no count of other workers, it is worked out from the two figures it does give.
Source: Rajya Sabha Unstarred Question 1511, 20 Dec 2022; Lok Sabha Unstarred Question 577, 19 Dec 2017; Lok Sabha Unstarred Question 2221, 8 Mar 2021, each citing the Public Enterprises Survey. Analysis by The Dalit Project, as on 11 Oct 2026. Exhibit 7
Public sector banks employed 762,565 people at the end of March 2026, against 886,490 in 2012-13; private sector banks, 832,401, more than public sector banks from 2023-24
Employees of public sector banks and of private sector banks, end of March, 2009-10 to 2025-26.
Lines: 2009-10: public sector 727,775, private sector 112,207; 2010-11: public sector 775,688, private sector 171,071; 2011-12: public sector 867,399, private sector 202,746; 2012-13: public sector 886,490, private sector 229,124; 2013-14: public sector 842,813, private sector 303,856; 2014-15: public sector 859,692, private sector 319,050; 2015-16: public sector 827,283, private sector 363,048; 2016-17: public sector 826,840, private sector 413,989; 2017-18: public sector 807,448, private sector 420,285; 2018-19: public sector 808,400, private sector 476,390; 2019-20: public sector 770,409, private sector 554,950; 2020-21: public sector 770,800, private sector 572,586; 2021-22: public sector 760,029, private sector 647,094; 2022-23: public sector 756,644, private sector 745,612; 2023-24: public sector 746,679, private sector 846,530; 2024-25: public sector 748,707, private sector 838,441; 2025-26: public sector 762,565, private sector 832,401.
Employees of public sector banks and of private sector banks, end of March, 2009-10 to 2025-26. Year Public sector banks (Employees) Private sector banks (Employees) 2009-10 727,775 112,207 2010-11 775,688 171,071 2011-12 867,399 202,746 2012-13 886,490 229,124 2013-14 842,813 303,856 2014-15 859,692 319,050 2015-16 827,283 363,048 2016-17 826,840 413,989 2017-18 807,448 420,285 2018-19 808,400 476,390 2019-20 770,409 554,950 2020-21 770,800 572,586 2021-22 760,029 647,094 2022-23 756,644 745,612 2023-24 746,679 846,530 2024-25 748,707 838,441 2025-26 762,565 832,401 Note: Reservation applies in public sector banks, not in private ones. IDBI Bank is counted as a private sector bank from 21 January 2019, as the RBI table notes. Subordinate staff, the lowest grade, in public sector banks went from 152,791 in 2009-10 to 80,089 in 2025-26.
Source: Reserve Bank of India, Handbook of Statistics on Indian Economy 2025-26, Table 46. Analysis by The Dalit Project, as on 11 Oct 2026. Exhibit 8
Of the 17 kinds of work and study listed here, reservation applies by rule in 7 and does not apply in 10
Whether reservation for SCs, STs, OBCs or EWS applies, by kind of employer, post or institution, with the rule, Act or Government answer that says so.
Table of 17 rows. Applies: Direct recruitment to Central Government posts and services; Promotion in Central Government posts; Central public sector enterprises (CPSEs), below Board level; Public sector banks; Temporary appointments of 45 days or more, Central Government; Admission to central educational institutions; Teachers in central educational institutions. Does not apply: Board-level posts in CPSEs; Temporary appointments of less than 45 days; People engaged on contract; Minority educational institutions, and research institutions listed in the Act; Private universities; Private employers; Companies after privatisation; Lateral entry to senior Central Government posts; Judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts; The armed forces.
Employer, post or institution Reservation applies What the source says In its words Source Direct recruitment to Central Government posts and services Yes SC 15%, ST 7.5%, OBC 27%, EWS 10%, in recruitment on an all India basis by open competition “Reservation is provided to the members of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Other Backward Classes and Economically Weaker Sections @15%, 7.5%, 27% and 10% respectively in the matter of appointment by direct recruitment to posts and services under the Central Government” Lok Sabha Unstarred Question 2679, 7 Aug 2024 Promotion in Central Government posts Yes SC 15% and ST 7.5%; none for OBC or EWS “In the matter of appointment by promotion, reservation is provided to the members of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes @ 15% and 7.5% respectively.” Lok Sabha Unstarred Question 2679, 7 Aug 2024 Central public sector enterprises (CPSEs), below Board level Yes The Central Government’s rules apply to its public sector undertakings “These instructions are also applicable in Organisations under the Central Government, including Public Sector Undertakings.” Lok Sabha Unstarred Question 2679, 7 Aug 2024 Board-level posts in CPSEs No No reservation “there is no reservation applicable to Board level posts in CPSEs” Lok Sabha Unstarred Question 2221, 8 Mar 2021 Public sector banks Yes Banks report reservation for SCs and STs in their staff “reservation in employment for SC/ST provided by the Public Sector Banks” Lok Sabha Unstarred Question 1349, 6 Dec 2021 Temporary appointments of 45 days or more, Central Government Yes SC, ST and OBC “temporary appointments which are to last for 45 days or more” DoPT Office Memorandum, 15 May 2018 Temporary appointments of less than 45 days No Left out since 1968 “except appointments which are to last for less than 45 days” DoPT Office Memorandum, 15 May 2018 People engaged on contract No No instruction provides for it “No instructions have been issued to provide reservation while engaging persons on contract basis.” Rajya Sabha Unstarred Question 540, 7 Feb 2019 Admission to central educational institutions Yes SC 15%, ST 7.5%, OBC 27% of seats in each branch of study “fifteen per cent. seats shall be reserved for the Scheduled Castes” Central Educational Institutions (Reservation in Admission) Act, 2006 Teachers in central educational institutions Yes Direct recruitment to teachers’ posts, each institution counted as one unit “there shall be reservation of posts in direct recruitment out of the sanctioned strength in teachers' cadre” Central Educational Institutions (Reservation in Teachers’ Cadre) Act, 2019 Minority educational institutions, and research institutions listed in the Act No Left out of the 2006 Act “the institutions of excellence, research institutions, institutions of national and strategic importance specified in the Schedule” Central Educational Institutions (Reservation in Admission) Act, 2006 Private universities No Not covered by the 2019 Act “Private Universities are not covered under the definition of CEIs” Lok Sabha Unstarred Question 103, 3 Feb 2025 Private employers No No proposal for reservation in private jobs “There is no such proposal under consideration with the Government.” Lok Sabha Unstarred Question 2619, 16 Dec 2025 Companies after privatisation No The rules for private employers apply once a public sector enterprise is sold “Post privatization, the laws and regulations as applicable to private sector will be applicable to the disinvested Public Sector Enterprises” Lok Sabha Unstarred Question 2765, 21 Mar 2022 Lateral entry to senior Central Government posts No Treated as single posts, to which reservation does not apply “reservation is not applicable to such single post appointment” Lok Sabha Unstarred Question 345, 24 Jul 2024 Judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts No The articles on their appointment provide none “which do not provide for reservation for any caste or class of persons” Lok Sabha Unstarred Question 3321, 7 Aug 2026 The armed forces No No reservation policy for SCs and STs (the latest such statement found is from 2008) “There is no reservation policy for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the defence forces.” Rajya Sabha Unstarred Question 965, 10 Dec 2008 Note: The list is of what the sources here state, not every kind of employer. Each row quotes its source. Lateral entry has brought 63 people into senior posts since 2018 (Lok Sabha Unstarred Question 345, 24 Jul 2024). The armed forces row rests on a 2008 answer; no later answer saying so in terms was found.
Source: the Constitution, the Central Educational Institutions Acts of 2006 and 2019, a Department of Personnel and Training office memorandum of 15 May 2018, and Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha answers, each named in its row. Analysis by The Dalit Project, as on 11 Oct 2026. Exhibit 9
Of the 9 reservation clauses in the Constitution listed here, 2 carry a time limit, all on seats in elected bodies; the 7 on jobs and education carry none
Each clause of the Constitution that provides for reservation or special provisions, what it covers, and any time limit in its text.
Table: Article 15(4), Special provisions for SCs, STs and backward classes: no time limit; Article 15(5), Admission to educational institutions, including private ones (not minority institutions): no time limit; Article 15(6), EWS, education, up to 10%: no time limit; Article 16(4), Reservation of appointments or posts: no time limit; Article 16(4A), Promotion, with consequential seniority, for SCs and STs: no time limit; Article 16(4B), Reserved vacancies carried forward: no time limit; Article 16(6), EWS, posts, up to 10%: no time limit; Articles 330 and 332, with 334, SC and ST seats in the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies: Eighty years from the commencement of the Constitution; Articles 243D and 243T, SC and ST seats, and chairpersons’ offices, in Panchayats and Municipalities: The period specified in Article 334.
Clause What it covers Time limit in the text In its words Article 15(4) Special provisions for SCs, STs and backward classes None “Nothing in this article or in clause (2) of article 29 shall prevent the State from making any special provision for the advancement of any socially and educationally backward classes of citizens or for the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes” Article 15(5) Admission to educational institutions, including private ones (not minority institutions) None “in so far as such special provisions relate to their admission to educational institutions including private educational institutions” Article 15(6) EWS, education, up to 10% None “any special provision for the advancement of any economically weaker sections of citizens” Article 16(4) Reservation of appointments or posts None “Nothing in this article shall prevent the State from making any provision for the reservation of appointments or posts in favour of any backward class of citizens” Article 16(4A) Promotion, with consequential seniority, for SCs and STs None “or classes of posts in the services under the State in favour of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes” Article 16(4B) Reserved vacancies carried forward None “unfilled vacancies of a year which are reserved for being filled up in that year” Article 16(6) EWS, posts, up to 10% None “in addition to the existing reservation and subject to a maximum of ten per cent. of the posts in each category” Articles 330 and 332, with 334 SC and ST seats in the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies Eighty years from the commencement of the Constitution “eighty years in respect of clause (a)” Articles 243D and 243T SC and ST seats, and chairpersons’ offices, in Panchayats and Municipalities The period specified in Article 334 “shall cease to have effect on the expiration of the period specified in article 334” Note: Article 334’s limit was extended to eighty years by the Constitution (One Hundred and Fourth Amendment) Act, 2019, from 25 January 2020, as the Constitution’s own footnote records. Eighty years from 26 January 1950 runs to January 2030. Women’s seats under Article 334A have a separate fifteen-year limit and were not yet in force in this edition.
Source: The Constitution of India, as on 1 May 2024, Legislative Department, Ministry of Law and Justice. Analysis by The Dalit Project, as on 11 Oct 2026. Exhibit 10
The EWS income limit and the OBC creamy-layer limit are both ₹800,000 (₹8 lakh, about US$9,200 at 2025 rates) a year, worked out on different incomes over different periods
The test that decides who counts as Economically Weaker Sections (EWS), beside the test that decides which OBC families are in the creamy layer and left out of OBC reservation, for Central Government posts, as the Government has stated them in Parliament.
Table: Income limit: EWS, Family income below ₹8 lakh (about US$9,200 at 2025 rates) a year; OBC creamy layer, ₹8 lakh (about US$9,200 at 2025 rates) a year; What income counts: EWS, All sources: salary, agriculture, business, profession; OBC creamy layer, Income from salaries or agricultural land is not added in; Whose income: EWS, The family’s; OBC creamy layer, The parents’, not the candidate’s; Over what period: EWS, The financial year before the application; OBC creamy layer, Three consecutive years; Land and property: EWS, Excluded whatever the income if the family owns 5 acres of farm land, a 1,000 sq ft flat, or a 100 or 200 sq yd plot; OBC creamy layer, Wealth above the Wealth Tax Act’s exemption limit.
Test EWS OBC creamy layer Income limit Family income below ₹8 lakh (about US$9,200 at 2025 rates) a year ₹8 lakh (about US$9,200 at 2025 rates) a year What income counts All sources: salary, agriculture, business, profession Income from salaries or agricultural land is not added in Whose income The family’s The parents’, not the candidate’s Over what period The financial year before the application Three consecutive years Land and property Excluded whatever the income if the family owns 5 acres of farm land, a 1,000 sq ft flat, or a 100 or 200 sq yd plot Wealth above the Wealth Tax Act’s exemption limit Note: The office memoranda themselves were not read; the rows are as the Government restated them in these answers. No source counts how many families qualify under either test. EWS candidates get no age relaxation or extra attempts (Lok Sabha Unstarred Question 2695, 11 Dec 2024). To keep SC, ST and OBC seats from falling when EWS reservation began, 214,766 seats were added in central educational institutions in 2019-20 and 2020-21 (Lok Sabha Unstarred Question 3508, 15 Jul 2019).
Source: Lok Sabha Unstarred Question 2581, 10 Mar 2021; Lok Sabha Unstarred Question 1786, 27 Jul 2022; Lok Sabha Unstarred Question 4349, 28 Mar 2017; Lok Sabha Unstarred Question 1727, 3 Dec 2014. Analysis by The Dalit Project, as on 11 Oct 2026. Exhibit 11
92.8% of households outside SC, ST and OBC earned less from work in 2023-24 than the EWS income limit of ₹8 lakh (about US$9,200 at 2025 rates) a year
Households whose head reports a social group other than SC, ST or OBC, measured three ways against the EWS income test, rural, urban and all India, %, PLFS July 2023 to June 2024 and HCES 2023-24, worked out by The Dalit Project from the National Statistics Office’s survey unit data.
Table: Household earnings from work under the limit (PLFS 2023-24): rural 97.7%, urban 87.5%, all India 92.8%, standard error 0.35 points; Household consumption under the limit (HCES 2023-24): rural 99.5%, urban 97.0%, all India 98.3%, standard error 0.09 points; Household consumption under the limit, and under 5 acres of land owned (HCES 2023-24): rural 90.6%, urban 95.4%, all India 92.9%, standard error 0.17 points.
Measure Survey Rural Urban All India Standard error, all Indiapercentage points Household earnings from work under the limit PLFS 2023-24 97.7% 87.5% 92.8% 0.35 Household consumption under the limit HCES 2023-24 99.5% 97.0% 98.3% 0.09 Household consumption under the limit, and under 5 acres of land owned HCES 2023-24 90.6% 95.4% 92.9% 0.17 Note: Neither survey measures what the EWS test counts, a family’s income from all sources: earnings from work leave out rent, interest and pensions, and better-off households spend less than they earn. So every measure here overstates the share under the limit, by an amount these surveys cannot give.
Source: The Dalit Project’s tables from National Statistics Office, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, unit-level data of the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS), July 2023 to June 2024, and the Household Consumption Expenditure Survey (HCES) 2023-24. Analysis by The Dalit Project, as on 11 Oct 2026. Exhibit 12
Four kinds of worker in government schemes, 5,965,633 people in all, are described by the Government as honorary workers or volunteers
Workers engaged under four central schemes run with the States (Anganwadi workers run the village child-care and nutrition centres of the Ministry of Women and Child Development), how many there are, and how the Government describes them in Parliament, the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha (its lower and upper houses).
Table: Accredited Social Health Activists (ASHAs), National Health Mission: 1,050,784 as on 30 Sep 2022; “ASHAs are envisaged to be community health volunteer and are entitled to task/activity based incentives.”; Anganwadi workers, Anganwadi Services: 1,328,000 as on 22 Jul 2021; “Anganwadi Workers and Anganwadi Helpers are “honorary workers” from the local community who come forward to render their services on part-time basis”; Anganwadi helpers, Anganwadi Services: 1,179,000 as on 22 Jul 2021; “Anganwadi Workers and Anganwadi Helpers are “honorary workers” from the local community who come forward to render their services on part-time basis”; Cook-cum-helpers, PM POSHAN (school meals): 2,407,849 as on 23 Jul 2025; “These CCHs are honorary workers who have come forward for rendering social services”.
Workers Scheme Numberpeople As on How the Government describes them Accredited Social Health Activists (ASHAs) National Health Mission 1,050,784 30 Sep 2022 “ASHAs are envisaged to be community health volunteer and are entitled to task/activity based incentives.” Anganwadi workers Anganwadi Services 1,328,000 22 Jul 2021 “Anganwadi Workers and Anganwadi Helpers are “honorary workers” from the local community who come forward to render their services on part-time basis” Anganwadi helpers Anganwadi Services 1,179,000 22 Jul 2021 “Anganwadi Workers and Anganwadi Helpers are “honorary workers” from the local community who come forward to render their services on part-time basis” Cook-cum-helpers PM POSHAN (school meals) 2,407,849 23 Jul 2025 “These CCHs are honorary workers who have come forward for rendering social services” Note: The counts are for different dates, 2021 to 2025, so the total is a rough size, not a count on one date. The Anganwadi counts are given in lakh to two decimals; the ASHA and cook-cum-helper counts are the totals of state-wise tables, which add up. The cook-cum-helper count is as given in the answer of 23 Jul 2025, which gives no date for it. None of these answers mentions reservation, and none says whether States apply it when they engage these workers.
Source: Rajya Sabha Starred Question 147, 14 Mar 2023; Lok Sabha Unstarred Question 2323, 13 Feb 2026; Rajya Sabha Unstarred Question 474, 22 Jul 2021; Lok Sabha Unstarred Question 1995, 6 Dec 2024; Rajya Sabha Starred Question 44, 23 Jul 2025. Analysis by The Dalit Project, as on 11 Oct 2026.
What’s next
The next update
We will update these figures on release of the PLFS annual report for 2025 and the Pay Research Unit report for 2024-25. This is version 1.
What the data can’t tell us yet
How many posts are actually reserved: no source counts reserved posts across all employers, and State Government posts are not counted at all since 2012.
What you can do
- Cite this piece.
- Ask the Department of Public Enterprises for the number of regular, contract and casual workers in central public sector enterprises each year since 2014, from the Public Enterprises Survey, under the Right to Information Act: rtionline.gov.in.
- Found an error? Tell us how to correct it.
About this data
- What this shows
- Where reservation applies by rule, and how many people work where it can apply: about 6 in 100 workers in 2023-24, with Central Government, CPSE and bank staff over time, and the scheme workers the Government calls honorary.
- Source
- National Statistics Office, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of India; Pay Research Unit, Department of Expenditure, Ministry of Finance, Government of India; Reserve Bank of India; Lok Sabha Secretariat; Rajya Sabha Secretariat; Legislative Department, Ministry of Law and Justice, Government of India; Parliament of India; Department of Personnel and Training, Government of India; World Bank; Seventh Central Pay Commission, Government of India, 68 documents, Table (39), Table (39) and Statement 13, Table (22), Table (35) and Statement 7, Group-wise sanctioned posts and persons in position and Table 46. Analysis by The Dalit Project, as on 11 Oct 2026. Every source
- What it does not show
- How many posts are actually reserved: no source counts reserved posts across all employers, and State Government posts are not counted at all since 2012.
- Last updated
- 11 Oct 2026 · Next expected update: on release of the PLFS annual report for 2025 and the Pay Research Unit report for 2024-25
- Corrections
- Changelog (version 1) · Corrections policy